A History Lesson
by Beezone, Ed Reither, and ChatGPT
“If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants”
Sir Isaac Newton in a letter to Robert Hooke, 1675
PREFACE
While studying Henri F. Ellenberger’s 1970 work ‘The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry,’ I was struck by a profound realization: our modern understanding of the mind is still in its infancy. Despite remarkable progress over the past 250 years in medicine, psychology, psychiatry, and neuroscience, we have only begun to scratch the surface of human consciousness.
Each generation believes it has found ultimate truths or at least the best approximations of them. Yet despite our incredible scientific advances, we still grapple with fundamental questions about life and consciousness. Perhaps more striking is how little we know—or choose to remember—about the insights of our predecessors.
This essay explores this historical perspective, beginning with our relatively recent understanding of evolution, to illuminate how our current knowledge stands on the shoulders of centuries of human inquiry. – Ed Reither
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Understanding the Transformations of 1859-1918 and Our Global World Order
History is more than a collection of dates, battles, and rulers. It is a map of where we come from and a guide for where we might go. Between 1859 and 1918, the world underwent one of the most profound transformations in human history, fundamentally reshaping the way people understood themselves and the world around them. To understand the scientific, religious, social, political, and personal challenges we face today, we must first understand this pivotal 50-year period. The shifts that occurred during this time shrank the world into what we now call a “Global World Order.” Without grasping these roots, we risk misunderstanding our present and stumbling blindly into the unknown future.
A Scientific Revolution: Shaking Humanity’s Place in Nature
In 1859, Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species, introducing the theory of evolution by natural selection. This idea was revolutionary. It challenged the belief that humanity was created as a unique and separate entity, placing humans within the broader context of nature. Darwin’s work eroded the long-held view of humans as the center of creation, replacing it with a vision of life as interconnected and constantly evolving.
This scientific shift transformed society’s understanding of progress, identity, and purpose. For example, Darwin’s theories influenced social and political ideologies, such as Social Darwinism, which misapplied evolutionary concepts to justify racial hierarchies and colonialism. The discovery of genetics later expanded these ideas, sparking both the promise of scientific progress and the dangers of eugenics. These developments continue to influence debates about humanity’s role in addressing global challenges like climate change, genetic engineering, and biodiversity loss.
Religious Transformations: Adapting to Modernity
The scientific revolution deeply affected religious institutions. Darwin’s ideas and other scientific advancements challenged traditional religious beliefs, forcing Christianity, Judaism, and other religions to adapt. Some religious thinkers integrated evolution into their theology, arguing that God worked through natural processes, while others resisted, creating a divide between secular and religious worldviews that persists today.
In the Middle East, the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the dismantling of the Islamic Caliphate after World War I forced Muslim societies to rethink the relationship between religion and modern governance. Reformist thinkers like Muhammad Abduh in Egypt and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani emphasized using reason, science, and adaptability to align Islamic principles with modern realities. Cairo became a hub for these intellectual reforms, with institutions like Al-Azhar University playing a central role in debates about modernity and tradition.
In Asia, Confucianism and Buddhism faced similar challenges. In China, the May Fourth Movement (1919) emerged as a response to traditional Confucian values, which were criticized as barriers to progress. Figures like Chen Duxiu and Hu Shih advocated for democracy and science, aiming to modernize Chinese thought and governance. In Japan, Buddhist leaders such as Suzuki Daisetsu (D.T. Suzuki) explored how Buddhist philosophy could coexist with modern science, influencing global perceptions of Zen Buddhism.
In Europe, Christian theologians like Friedrich Schleiermacher and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin sought to reconcile faith with science. Teilhard’s integration of evolutionary theory into Christian theology presented a dynamic view of spiritual progress, aligning the development of the human soul with the evolution of the cosmos. Meanwhile, in England, Charles Kingsley supported Darwin’s ideas, viewing evolution as a divine tool.
These debates were not limited to elites. In towns and villages across the globe, ordinary people grappled with the implications of these changes, negotiating their own beliefs in the face of modern science and new political realities.
Political and Social Upheavals: The Rise of Nation-States and Ideologies
The 19th century was dominated by empires, but by the early 20th century, this “old world order” was collapsing. The Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, Russian, and German empires fell during or after World War I, giving rise to a new system of nation-states. Nationalism became a powerful force, reshaping collective identities and redrawing borders. For instance, the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire created countries like Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, often sparking ethnic tensions that would linger for decades. Figures like Tomáš Masaryk in Czechoslovakia worked to establish democratic governance in these new states, while others faced challenges balancing diverse ethnic identities within their borders.
At the same time, new ideologies like socialism, communism, and liberalism emerged to address the inequalities and challenges of industrialized societies. The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (1917) established the first communist state, challenging capitalist systems and inspiring workers’ movements worldwide. Lenin’s leadership reshaped political thought, emphasizing class struggle and the need for global proletarian revolution. Meanwhile, in Germany, the Social Democratic Party gained prominence as it sought to balance socialist ideals with democratic processes.
The labor movements in Europe and the United States also grew stronger during this period. Figures like Eugene V. Debs in the U.S. and Keir Hardie in the U.K. advocated for fair wages, shorter work hours, and social protections, laying the groundwork for modern welfare states. In Italy, thinkers like Antonio Gramsci examined how cultural hegemony shaped class struggles, influencing later political and social theory.
In Asia, nationalism and anti-colonial movements gained momentum. In India, leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi began articulating visions of independence from British rule, emphasizing self-reliance and nonviolent resistance. Meanwhile, in China, Sun Yat-sen’s vision for a modern republic aimed to end dynastic rule and establish a more equitable and unified nation-state. Gandhi’s advocacy for satyagraha, or nonviolent resistance, would become a defining feature of global liberation movements in the mid-20th century.
In the Middle East, nationalist leaders like Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in Turkey emerged in the aftermath of the Ottoman Empire’s collapse. Atatürk’s reforms modernized Turkey by adopting secular governance, abolishing the Caliphate, and introducing Western legal and educational systems. This redefinition of Turkish identity exemplified the broader regional shifts toward modern nation-states. In Persia (modern-day Iran), Reza Shah similarly sought to modernize and centralize the country, curbing tribal autonomy and promoting industrialization.
The Personal Impact: Psychoanalysis and the Inner World
“the self is “not even master in his own home” – 1917 Sigmund Freud
As societies changed, so did the understanding of the self. Thinkers like Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, and Alfred Adler developed psychoanalysis, a revolutionary framework for understanding human behavior. They emphasized the role of the unconscious mind, inner conflicts, and early experiences in shaping identity. Freud’s theory of the Oedipus complex, for example, highlighted the complexities of family dynamics and their influence on individual development.
However, Freud’s early followers, Carl Jung and Alfred Adler, eventually broke from his ideas to develop their own psychological theories, each leaving a profound mark on the 20th century and beyond.
Carl Jung: The Collective Unconscious and Archetypes
Carl Jung diverged from Freud’s emphasis on sexual drives as the primary force in human development. Instead, Jung focused on the collective unconscious, a shared reservoir of memories, symbols, and archetypes that transcended individual experience and connected humanity. Archetypes, such as the Hero, the Shadow, and the Wise Old Man, represent universal patterns found in myths, religions, and dreams across cultures.
Jung’s approach emphasized the quest for individuation—the process of integrating different aspects of the self to achieve wholeness. This idea resonated with later movements in psychology, such as humanistic psychology, and had a profound influence on fields like literature, art, and spirituality. His concept of synchronicity, the idea of meaningful coincidences, challenged rigid scientific paradigms and encouraged more holistic approaches to understanding human experience.
Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology and Social Context
Alfred Adler also broke from Freud, rejecting the idea that unconscious sexual conflicts were the main drivers of human behavior. Instead, Adler developed individual psychology, which focused on the importance of social connections, feelings of inferiority, and the drive for personal growth. He introduced the concept of the inferiority complex, highlighting how feelings of inadequacy motivate individuals to strive for superiority or mastery.
Adler’s emphasis on the social context of psychological development paved the way for more socially oriented approaches to therapy. His work influenced family therapy, counseling psychology, and education, encouraging a view of individuals as embedded in their relationships and communities. Adler’s ideas also inspired the later development of positive psychology, which focuses on strengths, resilience, and well-being.
The Societal Mirror
This focus on the inner world mirrored the broader societal upheavals of the time. As traditional frameworks of identity—based on family, religion, and community—eroded, individuals sought new ways to understand themselves. Psychoanalysis offered tools for navigating these changes, influencing everything from art to politics. The Surrealist movement in art, for instance, drew heavily on Freudian ideas, exploring the unconscious through dreamlike imagery.
At the same time, the split between Freud, Jung, and Adler led to a diversity of psychological perspectives that shaped the 20th century. Jung’s focus on spirituality and symbolism inspired the humanistic and existential psychology movements, which emphasized personal meaning, self-actualization, and the richness of subjective experience. Adler’s ideas about social belonging and motivation informed counseling and clinical practices, promoting a more holistic view of human behavior that considered both individual and societal factors.
Legacy in 20th-Century Psychological Thought
The cultural influence of these thinkers extended far beyond psychology. Jung’s archetypes deeply impacted the fields of literature and film, providing frameworks for understanding character and narrative. Adler’s emphasis on the social self found resonance in political and educational theories, encouraging approaches that valued community and cooperation over competition.
This evolving understanding of the inner world provided not only insights into the individual psyche but also tools for self-reflection and personal growth. As psychoanalysis, along with the contributions of Jung and Adler, influenced art, politics, and culture, it helped individuals navigate the complexities of modern life. By addressing the intersection of personal and societal change, these psychological theories remain central to understanding the human experience.
The Global Perspective: A Shrinking World
World War I marked the beginning of a truly global era. It was the first conflict to involve nations from every continent, underscoring the interconnectedness of the world. Advances in communication, transportation, and technology shrank distances and made global interaction unavoidable. The use of the telegraph and railroads, for example, enabled faster coordination and logistics during the war, while early aviation hinted at the future of global travel. Battles such as the Gallipoli Campaign illustrated the strategic importance of international alliances, as forces from Britain, Australia, New Zealand, and India clashed with the Ottoman Empire, highlighting the global stakes of the conflict.
The war also accelerated shifts in global power dynamics. The entry of the United States in 1917 marked its emergence as a key international player, with President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points advocating for a new world order based on self-determination and collective security. Meanwhile, the collapse of empires such as the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires reshaped the geopolitical landscape, creating a fragile patchwork of new nation-states and mandates.
The Middle East: Redrawing Borders and Igniting Tensions
In the Middle East, the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916—a secret pact between Britain and France—divided Ottoman territories into spheres of influence, disregarding the cultural, ethnic, and religious complexities of the region. When combined with the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which expressed British support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine, these decisions sowed the seeds of future conflicts. Leaders like T.E. Lawrence (“Lawrence of Arabia”) played a controversial role, rallying Arab forces against the Ottomans with promises of independence that were ultimately unfulfilled.
The creation of colonial mandates by the League of Nations further entrenched European dominance. In Iraq, for instance, British control faced fierce resistance, culminating in the 1920 Iraqi Revolt. Similarly, the French mandate in Syria and Lebanon led to uprisings as local populations resisted foreign rule. These events underscored the enduring tension between imperial ambition and local self-determination.
Asia: Tradition Meets Modernity
In Asia, Japan’s rise as a modern industrial power and China’s struggles with modernization reflected broader tensions between tradition and progress. Japan’s victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) was a pivotal moment, demonstrating that a non-Western nation could challenge Western dominance. This victory inspired anti-colonial movements across Asia, including figures like Sun Yat-sen in China, who sought to modernize and unify the nation through the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912.
However, China’s path to modernization was fraught with challenges. The Treaty of Versailles in 1919 awarded former German concessions in China to Japan, sparking the May Fourth Movement, a wave of nationalist protests demanding an end to imperialist exploitation and the promotion of science, democracy, and cultural renewal. In India, leaders like Mahatma Gandhi drew inspiration from global events to shape a nonviolent resistance movement against British colonial rule, blending traditional values with modern strategies of civil disobedience.
The Legacy of Global Interconnectedness
The interconnectedness of the early 20th century set the stage for future global conflicts and collaborations. Advances in technology, such as the use of submarines and tanks, revolutionized warfare, while innovations like radio broadcasting began to connect people across continents in unprecedented ways. The emergence of international organizations, such as the League of Nations, reflected a growing recognition of the need for global governance, even as its failures highlighted the limitations of such efforts.
The arbitrary borders and colonial legacies left by agreements like Sykes-Picot continue to influence global politics. In the Middle East, unresolved tensions from this period have contributed to ongoing conflicts, while in Asia, the struggles for modernization and independence laid the groundwork for the region’s transformation into a powerhouse of the global economy.
By highlighting these dynamics, the early 20th century provides valuable lessons on the impact of global interactions, shaping a world that remains deeply interconnected yet fraught with unresolved tensions.